Materials science - Metal, Ceramic, Composites | Britannica

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The requirement that finished parts be able to operate at temperatures high enough to melt or degrade a polymer matrix creates the need for other types of matrix materials, often metals. Metal matrices offer not only high-temperature resistance but also strength and ductility, or “bendability,” which increases toughness. The main problems with metal-matrix composites (MMCs) are that even the lightest metals are heavier than polymers, and they are very complex to process. MMCs can be used in such areas as the skin of a hypersonic aircraft, but on wing edges and in engines temperatures often exceed the melting point of metals. For the latter applications, ceramic-matrix composites (CMCs) are seeing increasing use, although the technology for CMCs is less mature than that for PMCs. Ceramics consist of alumina, silica, zirconia, and other elements refined from fine earth and sand or of synthetic materials, such as silicon nitride or silicon carbide. The desirable properties of ceramics include superior heat resistance and low abrasive and corrosive properties. Their primary drawback is brittleness, which can be reduced by reinforcing with fibres or whiskers. The reinforcement material can be a metal or another ceramic.

Unlike polymers and metals, which can be processed by techniques that involve melting (or softening) followed by solidification, high-temperature ceramics cannot be melted. They are generally produced by some variation of sintering, a technique that renders a combination of materials into a coherent mass by heating to high temperatures without complete melting. If continuous fibres or textile weaves (as opposed to short fibres or whiskers) are involved, sintering is preceded by impregnating the assembly of fibres with a slurry of ceramic particles dispersed in a liquid. A major benefit of using CMCs in aircraft engines is that they allow higher operating temperatures and thus greater combustion efficiency, leading to reduced fuel consumption. An additional benefit is derived from the low density of CMCs, which translates into substantial weight savings.

Carbon-carbon composites are closely related to CMCs but differ in the methods by which they are produced. Carbon-carbon composites consist of semicrystalline carbon fibres embedded in a matrix of amorphous carbon. The composite begins as a PMC, with semicrystalline carbon fibres impregnated with a polymeric phenolic resin. The resin-soaked system is heated in an inert atmosphere to pyrolyze, or char, the polymer to a carbon residue. The composite is re-impregnated with polymer, and the pyrolysis is repeated. Continued repetition of this impregnation/pyrolysis process yields a structure with minimal voids. Carbon-carbon composites retain their strength at 2,500° C (4,500° F) and are used in the nose cones of reentry vehicles. However, because they are vulnerable to oxidation at such high temperatures, they must be protected by a thin layer of ceramic.

While materials research for aerospace applications has focused largely on mechanical properties such as stiffness and strength, other attributes are important for use in space. Materials are needed with a near-zero coefficient of thermal expansion; in other words, they have to be thermally stable and should not expand and contract when exposed to extreme changes in temperature. A great deal of research is focused on developing such materials for high-speed civilian aircraft, where thermal cycling is a major issue. High-toughness materials and nonflammable resin composite systems are also under investigation to improve the safety of aircraft interiors.

Efforts are also being directed toward the development of “smart,” or responsive, materials. Representing another attempt to mimic certain characteristics of living organisms, smart materials, with their built-in sensors and actuators, would react to their external environment by bringing on a desired response. This would be done by linking the mechanical, electrical, and magnetic properties of these materials. For example, piezoelectric materials generate an electrical current when they are bent; conversely, when an electrical current is passed through these materials, they stiffen. This property can be used to suppress vibration: the electrical current generated during vibration could be detected, amplified, and sent back, causing the material to stiffen and stop vibrating.